What parchment is
Parchment is a writing surface made from animal skin that has been cleaned, stretched and dried under tension rather than tanned into leather. The skins most often used were from sheep, goats and calves. The term vellum comes from a word for calf, and in strict usage it means calfskin, although in everyday and even scholarly writing the two words are often used loosely for any fine skin. Their uses overlap enough that the distinction should not be pushed too hard.
Writing on skin goes back a very long time. Egyptian and Near Eastern cultures used leather rolls, and by the Hellenistic period, skin prepared specifically for writing was becoming common.
The Pergamon story
An old tradition, passed down through Roman writers, says parchment was invented in the city of Pergamon, in what is now Turkey, when its rulers could not obtain papyrus from Egypt. The name parchment is thought to derive from that city’s name. Historians treat the story with caution: skin was already used for writing, and the tale may be a simplification. What can be said is that Pergamon became associated with the trade, and that parchment grew steadily in importance from the Hellenistic and Roman periods.
Preparing the skin
Methods varied, but a typical workshop followed a sequence of steps:
- The skin was washed and soaked, often in a lime bath, to loosen hair and fat.
- It was scraped on both sides, using a curved knife on a frame or board, to remove hair and flesh.
- The skin was stretched tightly on a wooden frame and scraped again as it dried, so that it tightened into a thin, even sheet.
- Finishing involved rubbing with pumice or chalk to smooth the surface and give it a better grip for ink.
The result varied in color and texture. One side, where the hair had been, was usually darker and sometimes still showed follicle marks. The flesh side was smoother and lighter. Scribes and book makers often arranged folded sheets so that matching sides faced each other in a gathering, a detail that lets modern scholars identify how a manuscript was assembled. Holes and tears in the skin were sometimes sewn up rather than discarded.
Strengths of parchment
Compared with papyrus, parchment was more durable and more flexible in handling. It could be folded, sewn and written on both sides without cracking. It tolerated humid climates better, which mattered in Northern Europe. And it could be reused: a text could be scraped or washed off and the sheet written on again. A manuscript with an older text partly visible under the newer one is called a palimpsest, and modern imaging has recovered lost writing from many of them.
Parchment also took color well. Fine manuscripts were illuminated with pigments and gold leaf, and the skin was strong enough to carry heavy paint.
From scroll to codex
The codex, a book of folded sheets bound along one edge, developed in the Roman world. Early on it was used for notes, using wax tablets or small sheets. Over time, writers and readers recognized its advantages. A codex was compact, it held more text per volume, a reader could find a passage by flipping, and both sides of a sheet could be used. Christian communities were especially early and enthusiastic users of the codex, though it was not exclusive to them.
Parchment suited the format well, because skin could be folded into gatherings and sewn. Papyrus codices existed too, but papyrus tended to crack along folds. Between roughly the third and fifth centuries CE, the codex gradually became the usual form for literary and religious works, and the scroll declined. The change was slow and uneven rather than sudden.
Cost and workshop life
Parchment was expensive. A large book could require the skins of dozens or more animals, which meant raising and slaughtering a substantial flock, and the preparation was skilled labor. This high cost limited the number of books and encouraged reuse, abbreviation of text, and careful planning of the page layout. Monasteries and, later, university towns and commercial workshops were major producers.
Later use
When paper arrived in medieval Europe, it gradually took over everyday writing, and printing with movable type used paper at scale. Parchment did not disappear, though. It remained in demand for prestigious documents, legal charters and some books because of its reputation for durability. Calfskin vellum is still produced today for certain ceremonial and art uses.